Magnetical

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.Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that are mediated. And the of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic field, which acts on other currents and magnetic moments. Magnetism is one aspect of the combined phenomenon of. The most familiar effects occur in materials, which are strongly attracted by magnetic fields and can be to become permanent, producing magnetic fields themselves. Demagnetizing a magnet is also possible. Only a few substances are ferromagnetic; the most common ones are, and and their alloys.

The prefix refers to, because permanent magnetism was first observed in, a form of natural iron ore called, Fe 3O 4.All substances exhibit some type of magnetism. Ferromagnetism is responsible for most of the effects of magnetism encountered in everyday life, but there are actually several types of magnetism. Substances, such as and, are weakly attracted to an applied magnetic field; substances, such as and, are weakly repelled; while materials, such as and, have a more complex relationship with a magnetic field. The force of a magnet on paramagnetic, diamagnetic, and antiferromagnetic materials is usually too weak to be felt and can be detected only by laboratory instruments, so in everyday life, these substances are often described as non-magnetic.The magnetic state (or magnetic phase) of a material depends on temperature, pressure, and the applied magnetic field. A material may exhibit more than one form of magnetism as these variables change.The strength of a almost always decreases with distance, though the exact mathematical relationship between strength and distance varies. Different configurations of magnetic moments and electric currents can result in complicated magnetic fields.Only have been observed, although some theories predict the existence of.

See also:Magnetism, at its root, arises from two sources:. of.The magnetic properties of materials are mainly due to the magnetic moments of their ' orbiting. The magnetic moments of the nuclei of atoms are typically thousands of times smaller than the electrons' magnetic moments, so they are negligible in the context of the magnetization of materials.

Nuclear magnetic moments are nevertheless very important in other contexts, particularly in (NMR) and (MRI).Ordinarily, the enormous number of electrons in a material are arranged such that their magnetic moments (both orbital and intrinsic) cancel out. This is due, to some extent, to electrons combining into pairs with opposite intrinsic magnetic moments as a result of the (see ), and combining into filled with zero net orbital motion. In both cases, the electrons preferentially adopt arrangements in which the magnetic moment of each electron is canceled by the opposite moment of another electron. Moreover, even when the is such that there are unpaired electrons and/or non-filled subshells, it is often the case that the various electrons in the solid will contribute magnetic moments that point in different, random directions to do so that the material will not be magnetic.Sometimes, either spontaneously, or owing to an applied external magnetic field—each of the electron magnetic moments will be, on average, lined up. A suitable material can then produce a strong net magnetic field.The magnetic behavior of a material depends on its structure, particularly its, for the reasons mentioned above, and also on the temperature. At high temperatures, random makes it more difficult for the electrons to maintain alignment.Types of magnetism.

Main article:Diamagnetism appears in all materials and is the tendency of a material to oppose an applied magnetic field, and therefore, to be repelled by a magnetic field. However, in a material with paramagnetic properties (that is, with a tendency to enhance an external magnetic field), the paramagnetic behavior dominates. Thus, despite its universal occurrence, diamagnetic behavior is observed only in a purely diamagnetic material.

In a diamagnetic material, there are no unpaired electrons, so the intrinsic electron magnetic moments cannot produce any bulk effect. In these cases, the magnetization arises from the electrons' orbital motions, which can be understood as follows:When a material is put in a magnetic field, the electrons circling the nucleus will experience, in addition to their attraction to the nucleus, a from the magnetic field.

Depending on which direction the electron is orbiting, this force may increase the on the electrons, pulling them in towards the nucleus, or it may decrease the force, pulling them away from the nucleus. This effect systematically increases the orbital magnetic moments that were aligned opposite the field and decreases the ones aligned parallel to the field (in accordance with ). This results in a small bulk magnetic moment, with an opposite direction to the applied field.This description is meant only as a; the shows that diamagnetism is impossible according to classical physics, and that a proper understanding requires a description.All materials undergo this orbital response. However, in paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances, the diamagnetic effect is overwhelmed by the much stronger effects caused by the unpaired electrons.Paramagnetism. Main article:In a paramagnetic material there are unpaired electrons; i.e., or with exactly one electron in them. While paired electrons are required by the to have their intrinsic ('spin') magnetic moments pointing in opposite directions, causing their magnetic fields to cancel out, an unpaired electron is free to align its magnetic moment in any direction. When an external magnetic field is applied, these magnetic moments will tend to align themselves in the same direction as the applied field, thus reinforcing it.Ferromagnetism.

Main article:A ferromagnet, like a paramagnetic substance, has unpaired electrons. However, in addition to the electrons' intrinsic magnetic moment's tendency to be parallel to an applied field, there is also in these materials a tendency for these magnetic moments to orient parallel to each other to maintain a lowered-energy state. Thus, even in the absence of an applied field, the magnetic moments of the electrons in the material spontaneously line up parallel to one another.Every ferromagnetic substance has its own individual temperature, called the, or Curie point, above which it loses its ferromagnetic properties. This is because the thermal tendency to disorder overwhelms the energy-lowering due to ferromagnetic order.Ferromagnetism only occurs in a few substances; common ones are, their, and some alloys of metals.Magnetic domains. Effect of a magnet on the domainsThe magnetic moments of atoms in a material cause them to behave something like tiny permanent magnets. They stick together and align themselves into small regions of more or less uniform alignment called.

Magnetic domains can be observed with a to reveal magnetic domain boundaries that resemble white lines in the sketch. There are many scientific experiments that can physically show magnetic fields.When a domain contains too many molecules, it becomes unstable and divides into two domains aligned in opposite directions, so that they stick together more stably, as shown at the right.When exposed to a magnetic field, the domain boundaries move, so that the domains aligned with the magnetic field grow and dominate the structure (dotted yellow area), as shown at the left. When the magnetizing field is removed, the domains may not return to an unmagnetized state. This results in the ferromagnetic material's being magnetized, forming a permanent magnet.When magnetized strongly enough that the prevailing domain overruns all others to result in only one single domain, the material is.

Streets of rage 2 hacks. When a magnetized ferromagnetic material is heated to the temperature, the molecules are agitated to the point that the magnetic domains lose the organization, and the magnetic properties they cause cease. When the material is cooled, this domain alignment structure spontaneously returns, in a manner roughly analogous to how a liquid can into a crystalline solid.Antiferromagnetism. Main article:In an antiferromagnet, unlike a ferromagnet, there is a tendency for the intrinsic magnetic moments of neighboring valence electrons to point in opposite directions. When all atoms are arranged in a substance so that each neighbor is anti-parallel, the substance is antiferromagnetic. Antiferromagnets have a zero net magnetic moment, meaning that no field is produced by them. Antiferromagnets are less common compared to the other types of behaviors and are mostly observed at low temperatures. In varying temperatures, antiferromagnets can be seen to exhibit diamagnetic and ferromagnetic properties.In some materials, neighboring electrons prefer to point in opposite directions, but there is no geometrical arrangement in which each pair of neighbors is anti-aligned.

This is called a and is an example of.Ferrimagnetism. Main article:Like ferromagnetism, ferrimagnets retain their magnetization in the absence of a field. However, like antiferromagnets, neighboring pairs of electron spins tend to point in opposite directions. These two properties are not contradictory, because in the optimal geometrical arrangement, there is more magnetic moment from the sublattice of electrons that point in one direction, than from the sublattice that points in the opposite direction.Most are ferrimagnetic. The first discovered magnetic substance, is a ferrite and was originally believed to be a ferromagnet; disproved this, however, after discovering ferrimagnetism.Superparamagnetism. An electromagnet attracts paper clips when current is applied creating a magnetic field.

The electromagnet loses them when current and magnetic field are removed.An is a type of in which the is produced by an. The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off.

Electromagnets usually consist of a large number of closely spaced turns of wire that create the magnetic field. The wire turns are often wound around a made from a or material such as; the magnetic core concentrates the and makes a more powerful magnet.The main advantage of an electromagnet over a is that the magnetic field can be quickly changed by controlling the amount of electric current in the winding. However, unlike a permanent magnet that needs no power, an electromagnet requires a continuous supply of current to maintain the magnetic field.Electromagnets are widely used as components of other electrical devices, such as, solenoids, scientific instruments, and equipment. Electromagnets are also employed in industry for picking up and moving heavy iron objects such as scrap iron and steel. Electromagnetism was discovered in 1820.

Magnetism, electricity, and special relativity. Main article:As a consequence of Einstein's theory of special relativity, electricity and magnetism are fundamentally interlinked. Both magnetism lacking electricity, and electricity without magnetism, are inconsistent with special relativity, due to such effects as, and the fact that the is velocity-dependent. However, when both electricity and magnetism are taken into account, the resulting theory is fully consistent with special relativity. In particular, a phenomenon that appears purely electric or purely magnetic to one observer may be a mix of both to another, or more generally the relative contributions of electricity and magnetism are dependent on the frame of reference.

Thus, special relativity 'mixes' electricity and magnetism into a single, inseparable phenomenon called, analogous to how relativity 'mixes' space and time into.All observations on apply to what might be considered to be primarily magnetism, e.g. Perturbations in the magnetic field are necessarily accompanied by a nonzero electric field, and propagate at the.

Magnetic fields in a material. Main article:A very common source of magnetic field found in nature is a, with a ' and a ', terms dating back to the use of magnets as compasses, interacting with the to indicate North and South on the. Since opposite ends of magnets are attracted, the north pole of a magnet is attracted to the south pole of another magnet. The Earth's (currently in the Arctic Ocean, north of Canada) is physically a south pole, as it attracts the north pole of a compass.A magnetic field contains, and physical systems move toward configurations with lower energy. When diamagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, a magnetic dipole tends to align itself in opposed polarity to that field, thereby lowering the net field strength.

When ferromagnetic material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic dipoles align to the applied field, thus expanding the domain walls of the magnetic domains.Magnetic monopoles. Main article:Since a bar magnet gets its ferromagnetism from electrons distributed evenly throughout the bar, when a bar magnet is cut in half, each of the resulting pieces is a smaller bar magnet. Even though a magnet is said to have a north pole and a south pole, these two poles cannot be separated from each other. A monopole—if such a thing exists—would be a new and fundamentally different kind of magnetic object. It would act as an isolated north pole, not attached to a south pole, or vice versa. Monopoles would carry 'magnetic charge' analogous to electric charge.

Despite systematic searches since 1931, as of 2010, they have never been observed, and could very well not exist.Nevertheless, some models predict the existence of these. Observed in 1931 that, because electricity and magnetism show a certain, just as predicts that individual or electric charges can be observed without the opposing charge, isolated South or North magnetic poles should be observable. Using quantum theory Dirac showed that if magnetic monopoles exist, then one could explain the quantization of electric charge—that is, why the observed carry charges that are multiples of the charge of the electron.Certain predict the existence of monopoles which, unlike elementary particles, are (localized energy packets).

The initial results of using these models to estimate the number of monopoles created in the contradicted cosmological observations—the monopoles would have been so plentiful and massive that they would have long since halted the expansion of the universe. However, the idea of (for which this problem served as a partial motivation) was successful in solving this problem, creating models in which monopoles existed but were rare enough to be consistent with current observations. Units SI.